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MODULE #7: HEALTH IN SOCIETY

In the Philippines, people can get usog or pasma, but people in the US or Europe do not know of such. Filipinos and Indonesians go amok, while the Inuits living in the Arctic Circle experience piblokto. The indigenous peoples of North America could experience ghost sickness, while Filipinos may experience sapi. The Chinese and Malay can experience koro; in the Philippines, people experience kulam.

While there are similarities in the illnesses mentioned above, they are not just local terms used to describe one medical condition. Instead, each condition is unique, its symptoms different from culture to culture. Only through a careful study of each illness can one say whether it is the same with other illnesses or not.

Unfortunately, such culture-bound syndromes have been dismissed as unscientific for the longest time, and very little literature has been written about them. Though found to have no real biochemical bases, culture-bound illnesses cannot be readily dismissed because they lead to observable physical and mental alterations among individuals afflicted by them. For example, a doctor treating a child with usog might see no problem based on laboratory results, but for sure there is a problem with the child because he or she has been crying for several hours straight. A person inflicted with kulam might show a degradation of physical health, but all health baselines may show to be normal. In order to promote the study of these syndromes in terms of the culture where they are found, the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM, now on its fifth revision) of APA and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems (ICD) added the term culture-bound syndrome and included a list of the most common culture specific illnesses.

What is a Culture-Specific Illness?

The APA defines culture-bound syndrome as the “recurrent, locality-specific patterns of aberrant behavior and troubling experience which may or may not be linked to a particular DSM-IV diagnostic category. These illnesses are culture-bound because they are considered as illnesses in a particular culture, but not anywhere else.

These are the characteristics of a culture-specific illness:

• the culture categorizes the symptoms being exhibited as a disease,
• individuals of the same culture are familiar with the symptoms of the illness,
• individuals of other cultures misunderstand or are unfamiliar with the illness,
• there is no objective biochemical or tissue abnormality that may be identified as cause of the illness, and;

• the illness is recognized and treated by folk doctors of the culture using a standardized methodology.

Culture-bound illnesses exist only in their cultures because their existence have a strong relationship with their etiology. Only in cultures that believe in ghosts and witchcraft could an illness like ghost sickness happen.

In the same way, only in a culture that look at flesh-eating as a taboo could the symptoms of windigo be considered as a disease. Culture-specific illnesses also have symbolic meanings for all members of the culture. Individual cases of culture-specific illnesses are connected with wider concerns—for example, a patient’s relationship with the community, the supernatural forces, or social conflicts that are patterned in culture. Often, responses to illnesses may lead to the resolution of these much wider concerns. A person who experiences kulam may wish to seek redemption for his

The Importance of Studying Culture-Specific Illnesses

The subject of culture-specific illness is controversial because it brings to the fore the very foundations of Western medicine. It leads medical professionals to review their assumptions in dealing with disorders that they are relatively unfamiliar with. The recognition of the existence of culture-specific illnesses opens the medical field into relativism.

The addition of culture bound symptoms in the DSM marks the development of a globalized approach to psychiatry where clinicians have to consider not just the cultural dimension of illnesses, but also the possibility of utilizing non-Westernized approach to treatment. In a study of Hispanics diagnosed with ataque de nervios (nervous breakdown), it was discovered that they also met the criteria for panic attacks, though not all features of a panic attacks were present in an ataque episode.

Through this knowledge, psychiatrists knew were to begin—they could utilize some techniques used for panic attacks to address ataque patients, but some modifications to the techniques were necessary due to the differences in the features of the illnesses. From being an “exotic” topic, researchers on culture-bound symptoms are now afforded with a higher degree of respectability.

The results they produce helps medical practitioners to gain a deeper understanding of these conditions, hence, enabling Western medicine to develop new, culturally-appropriate approaches to address these concerns. This is very important, especially since migration has also led to the spread of culturally-bound syndromes. No longer are these illnesses solely found in the home country. The addition of culture-specific illnesses in DSM and ICD also signals that the current standards for the classification of diseases is far from exhaustive. Because culture is dynamic, health, too, will be dynamic. illnesses. Illness may be caused by a disease, or it could be due to emotional and spiritual factors tied to the individual’s culture and worldview.

Health systems- refer to the systems of belief that surrounds the diagnosis, prevention, and treatment of health issues.

Disease Theories-Medical anthropology recognizes that there are at least three ways to explain how illnesses are developed.

• According to the personalistic disease theory, an illness is due to an agent of illness; for example, a witch, a displeased ancestor, or a supernatural entity. Treatment of illnesses that fall under this category could only be done through supernatural means. Healing is also performed by a healer who has understands the illness and what has caused it.
• The emotionalistic disease theory looks at illness as the impact of a negative emotional experience. In some cultures, sudden shock can lead to behavioral changes. Today, psychotherapists see that emotions have a major role to play in physical health, and new research is being conducted on how this understanding can be translated into the medical profession.
• The third disease theory is the naturalistic theory. We are all familiar with this as this is conventional medicine. In this theory, illnesses are due to an impersonal factor, and can be cured by impersonal treatments.

Ethnomedicine refers to the cross-cultural study of health systems. It looks at the medicine practice of indigenous peoples in the world and how it is impacted by globalization of health systems. Western medicine is just one kind of ethnomedicine.

Ethno-etiology, on the other hand, refers to the cross-cultural study of the causes of health problems. For example, it looks at how in Brazil, different types of wind causes different kinds of migraines. It looks at factors in the culture that could lead to different health outcomes. A special focus for ethnomedicine and medical anthropology in general is structural suffering or the social suffering caused by extreme poverty, conflict, and displacement, among others. What are the effects of structural suffering to the overall health of the individuals in a culture?

Through ethnomedicine, methods of diagnosis, prevention, and healing must now consider a patient’s culture in order for the medical practitioner to become effective. This is both an advantage and a disadvantage. On one hand, it will become much more difficult for medical professionals to apply a routinary treatment plans.

On the other hand, ethnomedicine is a road towards holistic medicine. It ensures that doctors see their patients as people, and that the treatments given to them ensure the highest possible well-being. The right to health has been continuously redefined in several international conventions. Some examples include the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, and the Convention on the Rights of a Child. If we look at the definition of health as the “state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being”, then the right to health does not only refer to the right to access to quality and adequate health care. Instead, it also refers to the human right to be protected from illnesses and diseases, as well as social structures that could negatively impact a person’s well-being. It means having access to decent housing, healthy working conditions, clean environments, and adequate food and sanitation.

Hence, in order for health care systems to become effective, they must be designed with human rights as standards. This means that a health care system must be accessible, available, acceptable, of the highest quality for everyone, and is equitable. The main thrust of the WHO is universal access. This means that comprehensive health care must be affordable for everyone, especially for the marginalized and those who live in conflict areas. Universal access also refers to gaining the right information about health and their rights.

For example, people who contract the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) are less likely to seek for medical attention for fear of social stigma. But knowing that they have the right to freedom of movement will ensure that they are not segregated, isolated, or quarantined.

Availability refers to ensuring that the latest health care infrastructure (building, equipment and trained medical professionals), goods, and services are available whenever and wherever it is needed. For example, in countries where citizens are unable to acquire the latest imaging technology, the government has to be ready to provide the subsidies in order to purchase it. In places where there is a lack of trained medical professionals, the government must create programs that will bring doctors to far-flung areas.

Acceptability refers to the creation of health care institutions that protect the dignity of all its patients. It is an institution that offers culturally-appropriate treatment, one that respects the unique health care needs of every individual that comes to its doors. In Asian societies where families play a huge role in the health outcome of patients, medical professionals must learn to explain diagnoses and treatment plans, to the satisfaction of the immediate family. An acceptable health care institution is one that adheres to the highest standards of medical ethics and confidentiality Even with the inclusion of culture-specific illnesses, all health care institutions must provide

high quality medical services. Quality control processes must be assured and treatments must be patient-centered. It is this thrust that pushes many health care institutions today to adapt evidence-based practice, as new methods of healing are being developed. Age-old methods like acupuncture and Ayurveda now has a place in medical practice. Though conventional doctors are not expected to adhere to these practices, they must learn not to immediately dismiss these modes of healing without adequately understanding its advantages and disadvantages.

Equitability in health care means that medical resources and services are given to those who need it, without discrimination on the health status, age, race, gender, religion, disability, country of origin, income or social status. It shouldn’t matter if a patient has the capacity to pay or none. If a patient is brought to the emergency room, immediate medical attention should be given to him or her before financial concerns are discussed.

The practice of medicine has come a long with the discovery of new, more advanced technologies. But medical anthropology has brought the diagnosis, prevention, and healing of diseases and illnesses to an all-new dimension. It has recognized the value of traditional healingmodalities, and in essence, affirmed the indigenous knowledge systems.

Today, medicine is no longer just about easing the symptoms of disease. Rather, it is about alleviating the cause of the disease in order to promote wellbeing, and in effect, productivity among people.

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MODULE#6:  RELIGION AND BELIEF SYSTEMS

       A belief system is a set of beliefs regarding what is true and false, what is good or bad, what is beautiful and ugly, what is acceptable by society and what is considered as unacceptable. A belief system usually possesses the foundational principles on which a religion, a science, a culture, or a philosophy is based but may not necessarily be the religion, the science, the culture, or the philosophy itself. Meanwhile religion is a belief system that relates humanity to the transcendental, and just like culture, it has its own set of rules, norms, values, and rituals, which are generally accepted by its group of believers. To better understand the concept, we must first trace the origin of the term. The word religion comes from the latin word religionem which means “respect for what is sacred, reverence for the gods”. It also comes from the latin word re which means again and ligare which means to connect. Put together, re–ligare therefore means “to reconnect”, in this sense, to the to the divine, the sacred, the supernatural, and the spiritual. According to Emile Durkheim, “Religion answers all the unanswered questions of human existence.” Most of the things that human reason cannot comprehend as of the moment can find answers in transcendental ideas such as religion.

What is Animism?

During the old days when science was not yet dominant, our ancestors could not understand many things in nature. When the lightning struck or when the volcanoes erupted, there were no reasonable or scientific explanation available to them.

Thus, our primitive ancestors were compelled to come up with mythical explanations to many things they saw in nature. Most, if not all, of ancient cultures are animistic, that is, the belief that all things found in nature are guided and inhabited by spirits and deities. Basic questions such as: how does the sun rise? Where do the rains come? How far is the sea? What is thunder? are all answered by spirits residing in those elements in nature. Thus, primitive cultures attribute the rising of the sun to the sun god; that the lightning and thunder are ruled by deities and gods; that the trees and the land are all animated by spirits. In order for nature to be kind to them, our human ancestors performed sacrifices and rituals to ensure the good favor of the gods.

The common features of animism include:

• The existence of souls or spirits which are viewed as the life-force of all things – from human beings, animals, plants, and even non-living things and phenomena;
• The souls and spirits are found in nature. They may take the form of plants, animals, trees;
• There exists a spirit world. There is a world where unattached spirits dwell. Such spirits may be evil and may bring chaos, hunger, death in the world of humans;
• There are human beings in the community who have the capacity to access the spirit world in order to communicate and control the evil spirits;
• The spirit of human beings survive physical death. Their spirits may go back to the world in the form of natural objects, or they can become one of the unattached spirits that bring evil to the world.

In the olden times, people had to contend with many spirits, gods, and deities. This is the reason why animism is usually polytheistic or the belief in many gods. Our ancestors usually had a hierarchy or a pantheon for gods and goddesses. In Ancient Egypt, their highest god is Ra or Re. Meanwhile, in ancient Greece, their highest god among many gods is Zeus. In early Philippines, we have bathala as the highest god even as we have diwatas (goddesses of the land) and anitos (spirits of nature) all around. While animism is often attributed to primitive societies, the truth is that many animistic practices still survive today. For example, we offer flowers and candles to the dead in the hopes of helping them reach the afterlife peacefully. We wish upon a star in order for our dreams to come true. At closer inspection, many of the rituals and belief systems developed by religions today have been based from animism.

 Monotheism is the belief in one god while polytheism is the belief in many gods. The foundation of polytheism is the belief that there are different gods and goddesses that typically have physical bodies, and have human characteristics. Such deities are representations of forces of nature, and are accorded with their own supernatural capacities.

For example, in the Hindu story above, there is a god of creation, and a god of destruction. In most polytheistic traditions, some gods are important than others. For instance, among the Greeks, Zeus has always been regarded as the lord of all gods, though not exactly the most powerful of them all. Meanwhile, in the Hindu tradition, Brahma has always been the chief god, and all the others have emanated from him. Some examples of polytheism that is still present today include Shintoism, Buddhism, and Hinduism. The following are the characteristics of a polytheistic religion:

• Gods of polytheistic religions are many, with each one having their own personalities, needs, and desires.
• These gods intervene in the daily life of people as each one govern various aspects of human life. Gods of polytheistic religions are thought to have the qualities, vices, and defects of human beings, but their physical appearances are rarely human.
• Though human in their personalities and characteristics, but they have their divine characteristics which belong to a different order of reality not attainable for man.
• Gods are immortal, but they are neither omnipotent nor omniscient.
• There is no single theory of belief because each god has the capacity to circumvent the other.
• Polytheistic religions are closely related to the cultural, social, and political conditions of the society where it exists. Its forms, rituals and belief systems are typically representative of the culture where it can be found.

According to history, polytheism was the typical form of religion during the Bronze Age and it dominated until the Axial Age, a period of history which occurred during the 8th to the 3^rd century BCE. This age was notable because this was when new ways of thinking appeared in many different countries in the world. This period was marked by the emergence of Confucian and Taoist teachings, Buddhism, and Zoroastrian. Unlike polytheism, monotheism purposes that there is only one god who was all-powerful and who had the capacity to intervene in the world. Monotheistic religions are believed to have developed out of Abraham and his descendants. Some of the largest monotheistic religions today include Christianity, Judaism, and Islam.

Some of the common characteristics of monotheistic religions include:

• God is omnipotent (all-powerful) and omniscient (all-knowing).
• God is a creator who sustain and maintain order in the world.
• God is incomparable to any image or representation.

The Supreme God and the Management of Civilizations

When ancient civilizations arose, the idea of one god became the dominant belief in many cultures. At first, it became necessary for ancient civilizations to have a temple of the gods where one powerful god was worshipped. The reason for this is simple: if there are many gods with equal power, then the believers will be prone to compete one god over the other and would result in endless wars on whose community worships the strongest god. If this is the case, the society will never be united under one ruler. If there is a highest god towering all over the others, then there is no competition as the king will always invoke the support of the highest god. Thus Jupiter is the highest god of the Romans and Zeus is the highest god of the Greeks. The idea of divine right granted by a supreme god to a ruler and all his descendants has been used by many cultures. Kings ruled with the authority and blessing granted to them by a supreme God who alone is has the capacity to judge the monarch. In polytheistic Hinduism, Brahma the creator is the highest god but he belongs to a trinity, with his two other personas, Vishnu the preserver, and Shivathe destroyer.

 An institutionalized or organized religion is called a church. Unlike religious traditions, organized religions have beliefs and rituals which are formally established and systematically arranged. Religions become institutionalized when they have the following elements, also referred to as the five Cs of organized religion:

1. Cult is the set of rituals and sacred places, items, and objects, religious practices that believers do and adhere to. It usually refers to some supernatural, superhuman, or transcendental power or promise that attracts followers. The beginning of religion usually starts with the cult.
2. Creed. As the cult expands and develops, the members are questioned and challenged from the outside. They also need to assure the next generations that their message will be transmitted in its original form. Thus members of an organized religion are compelled to come up with a written set of beliefs that would unite all members. This is their profession of their faith.
3. Code. As the organization of the community of believers progress through time, it cannot be prevented that some organizational issues and processes need to be systematized. They need to come up with a set of standard processes, organizational procedures and laws that would govern the whole membership. Questions pertaining to the organizational structure of the church, what constitutes the church hierarchy, what constitutes the laity and other things need be answered in legal form. This is the code of the church.
4. Community of Believers. All individuals who adhere to the set of beliefs of a certain religion are members of that religion’s community of believers.
5. Community Services are the things that the church does for its members and for the outside world. These include such activities as having regular services for the believers, putting up schools and hospitals, and doing humanitarian services, among other things.

The Crisis of Religion

During the olden times, the church and the state were united. The Sumerian Lugal (Big Man) or king was also the highest priest in their temple. The political leader of Ancient Egypt who was the Pharaoh is considered as a god himself. The Roman Emperor was considered as “Augustus” or the holy one as he is also the one who conducts rituals for the gods. The Holy Roman Empire was a literal empire that annexed countries and territories had a ruler that was crowned by the Catholic Pope.

Many countries in Europe had kings installed by the church, and are given the authority to rule by divine right. During the Dark Ages, this unity of the church and the state was abused by kings and the clergy. They amassed large tracts of land for themselves. They amassed wealth and power at the expense of the poor. After losing its huge resource of money and artifacts due to indiscriminate use, the church found a new way of earning income for itself. It collected indulgences from common people for the promise of eternal life in heaven. Meanwhile, kings continued to squander precious resources on lavish parties and ceremonial jests while their subordinates died of illness and hunger.

The Church hierarchy did not allow the spread of the Bible and suppressed those who translated or interpreted the Bible in the common language. Knowledge was limited only to the clergy and those who question the church were punished.

On one hand, this helped bring order to the society. On the other hand, it has curtailed freedoms and the creativity of people – the social problems became even greater. During the Enlightenment, many thinkers advocated for the age of reason. They questioned the monarchy and proposed for a new form of government called democracy, where rulers were elected by the populace. With the latest discoveries in science, many Enlightenment thinkers began to question many unsupported teachings of the church. In an attempt to maintain their monopoly of the truth about the universe and how it was created, the church assassinated many known scientist in the period by the term Inquisition. Galileo Galilei, who proposed that the world was round and he was suppressed by the church which then believed that the earth was flat. But despite its refusal to accept the findings of science, the church was bound to experience its greatest challenge.

The Enlightenment philosophers then proposed for universal suffrage (elections), the bill of rights, the checks and balances of government and the separation of the church and the state. In order to prevent the abuse of power, the church is prevented to meddle in the affairs of the state. The clergy are not entitled to run for political office.

After the French Revolution, which began the fall of monarchs from power, it was clear that the world was about to change. Divine right has failed, and the church, the most powerful organization that comes between man and his god, is forced to finally honor the will of the people. From then on, churches are forbidden to have temporal and secular power. The United States soon passed the First Amendment which ensured freedom of religion in its territories. Aside from providing its citizens to decide on the religion they wanted to adopt, the

First Amendment effectively prevented churches from attempting to influence the federal government. To better understand the importance amendment to the US constitution, it is important to look back into the life of Henry VIII. When Henry VIII decided he wanted to have another wife, the pope of the Catholic Church refused to let him marry again. In retaliation, Henry VIII decided to break off from the Holy Roman Empire and to establish his own church, now known as the Anglican Church, where the King was recognized as the head of the church. He then annulled his own marriage,married Anne Boleyn.

MODULE #5: EDUCATION AS A SOCIAL INSTITUTION

Most people equate education with schools, but there is a huge difference between these two.

Education

It refers to the various ways through which knowledge is passed on to the other members of the society. This knowledge can be in the form of factual data, skills, norms, and values. On the other hand, schooling refers to the formal education one receives under a specially trained teacher.

This was what Mark Twain, author of the novels The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and Adventures of Huckleberry Finn meant when he said, “I have never let my schooling interfere with my education.” Education evolves from time to time and from country to country. For example, in the Middle Ages in Great Britain, education was reserved only for the nobility, and the kind of education they received was focused on classical subjects that had nothing to do with earning a living. Around the same time in Japan, education was open to the nobility, but it was the Zen Buddhist monasteries and the Ashikaga Gakko – which focused on Chinese medicine, Confucianism, and the I Ching – that drove it forward.        Meanwhile, in the 1900s, education became more mainstream and could be accessed by workers and commoners. In Russia, education became a key component to becoming an industrial power, hence prompting the creation of a standardized educational system that was under the control of the government.

Unlike in the earlier years when students had the freedom to choose what they wanted to learn, teachers were then required to teach based on a predefined curriculum. Often, that curriculum focused on socialist values and academic excellence. Industrialization also seems to be a major contributor to the expansion of education in the United States. Unlike socialist Russia or its mother country Great Britain, however, education in the US focused on political participation.

According to Thomas Jefferson, allowing education to focus on the value of freedom and citizen participation in governance would enable Americans to “read and understand what is going on in the world.” The US was also the first country to enact mandatory education laws. Because the government paid for education in the country, it was necessary to produce practical consequences.

As a result, each generation of students received a fixed body of knowledge which often reflected the concerns and needs of the generation. For example, modern education in the US is focused on developing skills that students will need when they enter the job market. Practical arts and art have less room in the curriculum, but computer science and coding have gained center stage.

From the short discussion, one can already see that education is an important factor in maintaining the stability of a society. Note, however, that education can happen on various fronts. There is formal education (or schooling) which refers to the complete educational ladder all children must go through from childhood up to adulthood. And then there are the alternative forms which are not controlled by the government (often called private education, indigenous education, informal learning, and self–directed learning). With the advance of the internet, a new form of education has emerged: open education through online courses.

Regardless of these developments in education, formal education remains to be of paramount importance. Every child, in every country, has to go through it. As such, its functions remain the same. Formal education performs the following functions: socialization, social integration, social placement, cultural innovation, and latent functions such as childcare and the establishment of lasting social ties.

The Five Functions of Formal Education

• Socialization

As has been discussed above, education is used to promote the norms and values of a society from one generation to the next. In some countries, the transmission function of education is taken on by families. However, in more advanced countries, social institutions such as schools become important as the family can no longer provide the tools and important knowledge needed by the young student. This is the reason why formal education was developed.

From early childhood, students in formal education learn their native language, as well as the mathematical skill they will need to function in society. Such learning expands in secondary and tertiary education, as students are prepared to adapt to his changing realities.

As can be seen in the example of Russia and the US, education can be used to promote specific values which may be cultural or political in nature.In many countries, students are oriented towards competition, as can be evidenced by exams and the grading system adopted by formal educational institutions.

• Social Integration

Because education is used to transmit norms and values, it can also be regarded as a unifying force. It promotes desired values and ensures conformity. In cases of deviance, it provides widely known approaches to convert. For example, mandatory education laws in the US ensured that all immigrants to the country knew what was desirable and undesirable in the US society because they had to be educated in the US schools.

• Social Placement

Formal education helps students to discover approved statuses and roles that will help the society’s longevity. Educational systems consider the various talents and interests of students and attempt to provide opportunities that provide a good fit for these talents and interests. Formal education, in a way, is an equalizer. It focuses on achievement, rather than educational.

• Cultural Innovation

Educational institutions are the center of cultural innovation because they stimulate intellectual inquiry and promote critical thinking. It enables new ideas to develop, as well as provide bases for new knowledge to become accepted in the mainstream. Through schools, theories are proven; technologies are improved; and cultures can adapt to the changing society.

• Latent Functions of Formal Education

As more families have both parents working at the same time, schools tend to become an institution of child care. As children have to be in school, parents can have time to perform their economic duties without being burdened with childcare duties. Another latent function of formal education is the establishment of social relationships that would have a lasting impact on the life of a child.

We have heard of students ascribing their success to their teachers or successful businesspeople who rely on their social networks to promote their businesses. Many of the social ties a child forms in the course of their schooling are lasting social networks and would impact various aspects of their lives.

Education as a Human Right

The status of education as a human right is no new thing. Many international conventions such as the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women, and the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities have reaffirmed this right. Despite the consensus on the importance of education, human rights advocates continue to campaign for it due to two reasons:

• When children receive basic primary education, they will be able to learn the basics of literacy and numeracy, and hence, gain the basic social and life skills they need to be an active member of society and live a fulfilling life; and
• Many children around the world still do not have access even to basic primary education.

Three Facets of the Right to Education

The right to education goes beyond having the capacity to go to school. Article 26 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights underscores three basic rights in relation to education.

1. Education enables individuals to exercise all their rights. Through basic education, individuals are able to know about their rights and are able to assert them. They are able to get good paying jobs, participate fully in the political process, care for their environment, cooperate with their fellow men, and fight for equality and justice.
2. All children have a right to quality education. It is not enough that children are able to access education. Instead, they must be afforded with an education that meets their needs and prepares them for future challenges in their adulthood. In this aspect, learning outcomes are important indicators of success.
3. All children must be given the same educational opportunities. Socio-economic background, capacities, and location should not be a factor in a child’s education. Wherever the child is living, there should be schools that are able to provide him or her with an education that is at par with international standards. Children with disabilities should be allowed to go to school. The curriculum, their teachers, and class activities have to be adapted to fit their needs.

Education in the Philippines

As of 2013, the Philippine Statistics Authority shows that there are almost 10,000 private education institutions operating in the country. 20.1% of them are offering pre-school education; 17.5% of them are engaged in primary education; 25.6% are in secondary education, and 26% are involved in tertiary education. Because the lack of teachers and educational facilities are perennial problems in the Philippines, having these many private schools might sound like a good idea. But Kishore Singh, the UN special rapporteur on the right to education believes that the rise in private education is an indication of the government’s failure to meet their obligation in ensuring universal, free, and high-quality education for their citizens. With private schools, Singh continues, education becomes a privilege for the well-to-do and could lead to continued marginalization and exclusion of those who are already marginalized. It creates social inequality and is a clear infringement of the human rights law.

The problem with privatization of education does not end with basic education. As state colleges are rare in many countries, there is unequal access to higher education. In the Philippines, until recently, a family must have at least PHP50, 000 per child per year in order to send their children to a state university. While free college education in the country is currently being implemented, there is no assurance as to how long it will continue. Moreover, most state universities and colleges can only accommodate a number of students, and a vast majority of secondary school graduates must enter private universities for tertiary education.

As of 2015, tuition fees in private universities range from PHP 50,000 to almost PHP200, 000 per semester, depending on the school the students choose to enroll in. Statistics also show that the average family income for the same year was only at PHP 22,000 per month with 41.9% of the family’s total expenditures allotted for food. If an average Filipino family has two to three children, it is clear that very few can afford to send their children to good schools.

Even with the Philippines’ difficulties in providing adequate educational opportunities for all its citizens, we are still better off compared to other countries. As an example, in 2017, it has been reported that about 1.75 million Syrian children are out of school due to the continuing hostilities in their country. As refugees flock Turkey, Jordan, and Lebanon, these countries’ capacities to provide free, basic education are seriously at risk.

 

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MODULE #4: NON- STATE INSTITUTIONS

Non-state institutions

This are groups and organizations which operate outside the support of any state or government. They are referred to be ‘stateless’ since they are considered to be independent of any state, although, they usually collaborate with the government in implementing projects. Non-state institutions assume different functions and focus on a specific objective. In general, they develop certain services needed by members of the society for their progress.

There are different non-state institutions that operate in society. Two of them are banks and corporations.

• Banks

The term ‘bank’ has no single definition for many authors have provided their own definition of it. For the purposes of uniformity, we define a bank as a financial institution licensed to provide several financial services to different types of customers. Banks are in operation mainly for their deposit and lending function. Customers are allowed to deposit their money to banks which grow through an interest rate. Banks also provide loans, at a higher interest rate, to customers who need money either for personal consumption or for investment and businesses. This process of taking in deposits and lending them to customers in need is called financial intermediation. This means that the bank serves as a connecting link between its depositors and borrowers of money.

Banks also act as a custodian of customer’s money, which help guarantee the safety of each deposit. When a person puts his money in a bank, the amount given is maintained in a deposit or savings account which prevents the risk of theft and robbery. Certain types of bank accounts also make it possible for customers to withdraw money as needed. This ensures a more secured transaction of funds. Some secondary functions of a bank include money remittance, which make it easier for people to send money from one place to another. This holds importance especially for overseas Filipino workers (OFWs) who provide financial assistance to their families in the Philippines. Most banks also accept payments to house and other utilities such as electricity and water utility. This function of the bank eases the transaction of its customers with utility companies.

Other bank functions include currency exchange, allowing customers to convert foreign currencies to another currency they need and safety deposit boxes, which provides customers a safe place to keep their priced possessions (e.g. gold, silver, or jewelries). Due to the countless services that banks provide, there are types of bank which only specialize in a specific bank function. However, there is no clear line categorizing banks to a classification since one bank may engage itself in several functions. In this case, a specific bank can be classified into two or more bank types. Some of the most common types of banks are as follows:

• A retail bank is a type of bank that focuses on consumers or the general public as its customers. One’s personal bank account, like checking and savings account, are usually in a retail bank. Retail banks can be considered to be the most common and widespread of all the types of banks.
• A commercial bank also provides the same services as a retail bank; however, it focuses on businesses and businessmen as its main customers. Commercial banks provide short term loans for businessmen to be used for investment purposes.
• An investment or an industrial bank provide medium and long-term loans and deposits to business industries.
• Agricultural banks, as the name suggests, caters to the financial needs of farmers and the farming industry. They provide short-term and long-term loans to facilitate agricultural activities. Loans from this type of bank is used for buying seeds, fertilizers, land, or any materials needed for farming. An agricultural country such as the Philippines is unsurprisingly abundant of agricultural banks. Examples of which are the The central bank is the main financial institution in a country since it supervises the monetary system in the country. It functions as a regulating institution to all other banks in a country and it issues all the bank notes (or money bills) and coins of the country in which it operates. The Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas is the central bank of the Philippines. A central bank is the only banking institution established through a special law of the government, which makes the government of great influence to its central bank.

If you try to think of companies and businesses you know, it is possible that some of them arecorporations, since corporations are one of the most commonly known non-state institutions.

A corporation is an organization, created by a group of people known as shareholders, which is legally recognized to act as a single person in carrying out certain goals and objectives. As a ‘legal person’, a corporation is mandated to enjoy the rights, privileges, and responsibilities of an individual. Using its own name, a corporation has the right to enter into contracts, to hire employees, and to loan and borrow money. It is also authorized to have its own assets.

Any corporation-owned property belongs to the corporation itself and not to the owners of the corporation. Like most individuals, a corporation is also obligated to pay taxes. This non-state institution is created to operate businesses and to pursue a common objective, may it be profit-oriented or not. Although, many corporations are usually set up for profit. It is important to take note that a corporation is a distinct and separate entity from the people who own it. This enables the corporation to have powers and liabilities of its own. Any debt of the corporation is the responsibility of only the corporation itself; shareholders cannot be personally held accountable for these debts. This feature also enables the corporation to sue and be sued in behalf of its name. Any lawsuits directed to the corporation is solely the responsibility of the corporation itself and not of its owners.

 

There are different types of corporations that are classified based on specific factors like the corporation’s purpose, manner of taxation, and number of shareholders.

• A business corporation is created to operate and to generate profit. Companies like McDonald’s and Starbucks are examples of a business corporation.
• A non-profit corporation is established with a purpose of serving the public rather than pursuing profits.
• A corporation whose income is taxed through the corporation itself is a C-corporation.
• An S-corporation is taxed through its shareholders. An S-corporation can only have less than 100 shareholders, unlike a C-corporation which can have an unlimited number of shareholders.

Banks, Corporations and their Social Implications

Banks and corporations both play a part in the economic growth of society. As mentioned earlier, financial intermediation in a bank allows the institution to issue loans to borrowing customers (individual or group) who need money for their investment, at a higher interest rate. This loan will, then, facilitate businesses and investments. In short, loans from the bank will keep businesses going. Continued operation of businesses leads to greater chances of generating more income for the business and increasing employment. More income would entail more savings to be deposited in a bank which will be used to lend to future customers.In this case, it can be seen that the bank plays a role in facilitating the cycle of expediting investments and generating more income and savings.

Cooperatives

According to the International Labor Organization (ILO), a cooperative is “an autonomous association of persons united voluntarily to meet their common economic, social, and cultural needs and aspirations, through a jointly owned and democratically controlled enterprise”.Members of a cooperative usually joins together in order to achieve a specific objective, an objective which usually benefits the members of the organization itself. In short, cooperatives are mainly structured to benefit its members and to satisfy its members’ needs. In a cooperative, the people who use its products or services are the same people who own and control the organization. Cooperatives exist among different industries and are composed of different types of people, may it be farmers, consumers, or workers.

There are several principles that uniquely characterize this non-state institution. It is an essential characteristic of a cooperative that its owners and financers are also the people who use the cooperative.

Meaning, in a typical cooperative, the customers are also the ones who own the organization. These members or users are also the ones who have control over the cooperative. They have the power to elect a board of directors which will handle the overall operation of the organization. Users or customers of a cooperative are also the ones who benefit from it. To have a clearer grasp of these principles characterizing cooperatives, let us look at an example of a consumer cooperative. The function of a consumer cooperative is to provide products and commodities needed by people. A consumer cooperative may put up a supermarket to satisfy this necessity for certain products.

The people that serve as primary customers of the supermarket are usually the people who created the cooperative itself. They created the cooperative because they needed an organization that would meet their specific objective. Since these customers are the financers and owners of the cooperative, they also have the power and control to elect their board of directors through a democratic election (i.e. one vote per member). The board is expected to spearhead the general operation of the supermarket.

Although non-members of the cooperative can also shop and be customers in the said supermarket, only cooperative members are entitled to benefits and profits of the organization. Assuming that the supermarket generated a profitable income, the cooperative must distribute this profit to its customers who are also members and owners of the association. Benefits from such profits can be monetary in form or discounts to products sold.

The International Cooperative Alliance also came up with seven principles to characterize a cooperative. These principles are as follows: (a) voluntary and open membership, (b) democratic member control, (c) member economic participation, (d) autonomy and independence, (e) education, training and information, (f) cooperation among cooperatives, and (g) concern for the community.

There are several types of cooperatives, depending on its specific function and purpose.

• A credit cooperative provides financial services to its members, including securing savings and creating funds to be used for issuing loans.
• A consumer cooperative operates mainly to obtain and distribute products and commodities to its customers, both members and non-members.
• Producer cooperatives aids those in the sector of production, either agricultural or industrial. A subtype of a producer cooperative is agricultural cooperatives which help producers or farmers in marketing their crops as well as in purchasing supplies needed for further production.
• A service cooperative (or a worker cooperative) concentrates on helping workers in the service-oriented occupations (i.e. health care, transportation, labor) by creating employment opportunities and other benefits to its members.
• A multi-purpose cooperative undertakes two or more functions of different cooperatives. For example, multi-purpose cooperative could act as a consumer cooperative and establish a supermarket. At the same time, it could also provide financial services like a credit cooperative.

Trade Unions

Part of the universal human rights of every individual is his right to organize and form associations that would protect his rights as a worker; the embodiment of this right is trade unions. A trade union or labor union is an organization with a membership composed of workers or employees from related fields, which aim to represent the interests and rights of its members, both in the workplace and in the society.

While an individual has the capacity to demand better conditions from his employer, trade unions recognize that a unity of several employees would act as a more powerful tool in advancing these interests. This is how trade unions became the voice of the workers to the management; they serve as link between employees and their employers. Trade unions work to improve certain issues like wage adjustment, good working environment, and rewards and other benefits.

There are different types of trade unions according to its members.

• A general union represents workers with a range of jobs and skills, from different industries and companies. An example of this type of union is a trade union of drivers, janitors and office workers.
• Industrial unions are composed of workers from one particular industry, across different levels of the hierarchy. A trade union of all employees who work in the mining industry (with different levels and positions) is an example of an industrial union.
• A craft union seeks to represent skilled workers doing the same work who may be employed in different industries. A craft union of carpenters is one example.
• A white-collar union is composed of professionals doing similar jobs across different industries. A trade union of teachers and professors is an example of a white-collar union.

Although there are many types of trade unions, these classifications still perform the same functions expected from a trade union. In addition, a trade union may not only be limited to a particular company. here are unions in the Philippines which are composed of several workers from different companies.

Defining Transnational Advocacy Groups

To have a general understanding of what a transnational advocacy group is, it is better to first individually define terms that make of it. The word ‘transnational’ denotes something that goes beyond one’s national borders. ‘Advocacy’ can be defined as issues or causes that are being defended or supported by a certain group of people known as advocates. A ‘group’, as you were familiarized in previous lessons, is generally defined as a collection of individuals with significant relations among each other.

Combining these terms and definitions, we may define a transnational advocacy group as a collection of actors (individuals or groups) characterized by their fluid and open relations with each other, united by their commitment to work on and defend certain issues and causes that are relevant across several nations. They “use the power of information, ideas, and strategies to influence the value context within which states make policies”.Transnational advocacy groups are also referred to as “transnational advocacy networks” due to the nature of actors’ connection with each other.

As discussed in a previous lesson, networks are a web of weak social ties among groups and individuals. This definition may also apply to the relationship of actors in a transnational advocacy group. Actors in the group can be a combination of advocates and activists, non-government organizations, foundations, church, media, politicians, or corporate business actors. Their relationships are not highly structured and crystallized but they are loosely organized and connected as they share values and exchange information about certain issues which they are committed to promote.

The word ‘transnational’ characterize this network of actors since members of a transnational advocacy group come from different nations involved. In addition, the term ‘transnational’ also illustrates the group’s involvement to certain ‘trans-sovereign’ issues— issues that exist in multiple countries. These issues include human rights, women’s rights, environmental protection, and indigenous peoples’ rights.

Functions and Strategies

The main function of a transnational advocacy group is the creation and development of advocacies and campaigns about certain causes, issues, ideas, values and beliefs. These campaigns aim to motivate changes in policies, which are necessary for the betterment of people involved. Since this non-state institution do not have inherent power to make instant policy changes in the state, they use, instead, the power of information dissemination, together with other strategies, to influence state actors who are in legitimate position to create such changes.

Keck and Sikkink named four tactics used by transnational advocacy groups to influence the state’s behavior and policy making. These are information politics, symbolic politics, leverage politics, and accountability politics.

First, information politics is the ability to produce and circulate accurate and credible ideas and information to persuade people and motivate them to take action. Transnational advocacy groups do these through campaigns and other ways of communication.

    Symbolic politics is the ability of the group to interpret and use symbols or stories in such a way that it would emphasize the issue at hand. They provide explanations about an event and connects it to the specific cause. For example, the death and extinction of certain animal species may be used by environmental advocacy groups to raise awareness about environmental degradation.

    Leverage politics enables transnational advocacy groups to use some form of leverage, to tap and influence target actors that are powerful enough to institute policy changes. These powerful actors may come from the government, larger institutions (e.g. World Bank), or even corporate business owners.

Lastly, accountability politics happens as transnational advocacy groups convince state actors to change their position about certain issues, and persuades them further to act upon their verbal support about certain issues. Advocacy groups can use their power of information to expose the discrepancy between an actor’s words and his action. Let’s take for example, a senator who verbally expressed his support about protecting indigenous peoples’ rights. In this scenario,the senator has confirmed his position about the issue, but he does not make any concrete actions in support of the cause. Because of this, advocacy groups may point out to the public,the inconsistency between the senator’s words and his actions (or lack thereof). This will then push the senator be true to his word and translate them into concrete operations.

Development Agencies

The establishment of development agencies can be found in history. In the Second World War,many countries had been grounds for attacks and bombings which resulted to crises such as starvation and food scarcity, among others. Because of these, many European countries saw the need for the creation of an organization that would attend to the crises brought about by the war.

Development agencies were formed as a response to crises like war damage and industrial decline. In some countries, such agencies were established with the hope of stimulating economic development, post- war. Development agencies have come a long way since they were first established, as thousands of them are currently operating within the globe.

Nonetheless, there is still no solid formula to create this type of non-state institution since different development agencies across the world have a range of specific functions and roles. This lack of common understanding about development agencies makes it more difficult to define it. In general, we refer to development agencies as groups or entities that are tasked and committed to pursue certain developmental agendas of a state. They are an institution that provides help in support of a state’s economic growth and social progress.

Roles of Development Agencies

As mentioned earlier, development agencies have a range of tasks. It is, however, important to note that it is up to the organization to decide which among the wide array of tasks they will pursue. Normally, specific tasks of a development agency are dependent on the aspect of development it focuses on. In a research commissioned by the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the roles of development agencies may include;

• A.strategic roles, such as coordinating with local actors and international donors, monitoring the local economy, and strategic planning for economic and local development;
• B.asset and investment roles, such as land and property management, funding and investing in local development projects, income generation, and provision of grants or donations for other organizations;
• C. innovation, enterprise, skills, and employment roles, which include workforce and skills development, employment creation, and support of small and medium scale businesses;
• D. promotional roles, like foreign investment promotions and project management; and;
• E. capacity building roles which include providing technical assistance to other local development organizations and informing them of good practices and models.

The word international organization is an umbrella term used to refer to institutions established by three or more states as voluntary members, formed through a formal agreement or treaty, in order to promote cooperation and coordination among them. Members of an international organization work together for the development and management of their common interests.

The main feature and characteristic of an international organization which distinguishes it from other non-state institutions, is that its membership is entirely composed of national states or governments. These member states give power to the international organization which gives the institution some degree of authority to manage and govern the same member states. International organizations tend to focus on different agendas. The decision of what agendas to pursue by an organization exclusively depends on the interests of its members. Some agendas may be economic (e.g. finance and investments), humanitarian (e.g. human welfare, human rights), or environmental (e.g. global warming, climate change, biodiversity) in nature.

Significance of International Organizations

International organizations provide an avenue for different countries and states to connect. This connection among countries help form international laws, norms, and ideas, which in turn strengthen the relationship among member states. These norms also serve as guides on how toregulate and manage these member states.

Through the development of these norms, states are guided in their actions both locally and internationally. Due to the presence of an independent international institution, issues that are present across different national borders will be addressed and recognized. There will be a body to monitor actions of member states and investigate those actions against humanity (e.g. human rights violation). In the end, we can claim that international organizations have been embedded in the lives of people, as they perform multiple functions— tasks that aim to improve the lives of people by pursuing different development agendas.

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MODULE #3:ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

Economic institutions

-are those that are involved in the production and distribution of the goods and services that members of a society need. Economic exchanges, which are an important part of a functioning economy, happen for different reasons and through different ways. Because societies greatly differ from each other in terms of culture, their systems of economic exchange may also vary.

Reciprocity

-refers to the voluntary giving or taking of objects without the use of money in the hopes that, in the future, they could be given back. Reciprocity could take the form of barter, hospitality, gift-giving, and sharing. You might not realize it, but people engage in reciprocity most of the time. Simple activities like borrowing and returning a pen could be categorized as reciprocity. In societies, however, reciprocity means more than just a simple social activity. The aim of engaging in reciprocity is to build and strengthen social relationships as well as acquire more means or favors. As you may recall from earlier lessons, social relationships are needed to expand personal and cultural development at the macro and micro level. Gaining more favors through reciprocity contributes to this development by allowing people to maximize their options in times of need.

A good example of reciprocity is the Filipino culture of utang na loob. This is an act of kindness or favor that is expected to be given in return. For instance, Filipinos who seek help from their acquaintances in accomplishing any specific task, such as looking for a job or securing a personal loan for the family, would see themselves indebted to their friends. When the time comes that the friend asks for a favor, it is common practice to help him out in return. In our country, utang na loob is not mandated by any law or legal document. It is, however, part of our unique culture and identity as Filipinos. In the same way, exchanges at the larger-scale could be facilitated through reciprocity. For example, it is common nowadays to see big companies partnering up with each other in hosting big events and promotions. These partnerships allow companies to gain favors from each other and at the same time, benefit from each other. Among national governments and states, the same process also occurs. This could be seen especially in times of calamities or disasters. For instance, the disastrous effects of Typhoon Yolanda in 2013 that took hundreds of lives and destroyed thousands of properties in the Samar and Leyte region caught the attention of many countries, private institutions, non-government organizations, and even individual donors. All of them helped the Philippines through different means. While the Philippines was able to survive the heavy impact of Typhoon Yolanda, our country is still indebted to those who helped us survive the unfortunate event. As such, when other countries are facing risk and disaster, the Philippines is also expected to return the favor by helping out.

Forms of Reciprocity

While reciprocity is a simple concept, societies still use it differently. Thus, various forms of reciprocity have been developed over time. The three forms of reciprocity were identified by anthropologist Marshall Sahlins; thus, these forms of reciprocity are collectively known as Sahlins’ Typology.

Generalized Reciprocity

The main feature of generalized reciprocity is the exchange of goods and services without a definite time frame of when the favor should be returned. In this form of reciprocity, individuals giving out the favors do not expect to receive anything back. Such activity is commonly done among small groups or societies. A good example of this is your relationship with your family and closest friends. When you are given food by your parents, for instance, do they expect you to buy them food in return? Parents usually do not ask their children to repay them for what they are given. At the sametime, children are not obliged or pressured to return the favor as well. The same situation goes for close friends. While they may expect more, close friends who do favors for one another usually do it out of love, concern, or camaraderie, and not for any economic gain.

Among societies, generalized reciprocity occurs in smaller groups like bands or tribes where   high importance is placed upon the culture of sharing. Nevertheless, all human populations experience this form of reciprocity.

In balanced reciprocity, exchange occurs between groups or individuals with the donor expecting to receive something of equal or similar value. In this form, no haggling occurs between two parties, and the exchange of goods occurs at a particular rate set upon by the groups. There is pressure to give back the favors at a specific point in time. Unlike generalized reciprocity, balanced reciprocity demands timely reciprocation that when favors are not received by the donor, they could refuse to continue giving out the favors. Among groups, the effects of non-compliance could result in gossiping, refusal to commit to any other transaction, forced reciprocation, or strained relationships. In pre-industrial societies, balanced reciprocity is usually organized through trade agreements. This would mean that one member of a group has a designated partner in another whom he or she chooses to trade goods with. The pair is responsible for organizing the terms of their exchange, but no bargaining would still occur.

In negative reciprocity, groups try to maximize their gains while giving as little as possible.This form is usually motivated by the desire to acquire a large number of goods using minimal resources. Negative reciprocity is similar to market exchange; however, in negative reciprocity,no monetary exchange occurs among groups.In pre-industrial societies, therefore, negative reciprocity is important, especially when groups need to acquire products that are not easily accessible to them. In common terms, groups could “import” products that they need from other groups, and in order to reduce the favor, barters and bargaining occur. Groups would maximize their resources to gain favorable outcomes and products from their goods.

Also called “government transfer” or “transfer payments,” transfers are a redistribution of wealth and income where no goods or services are being given to the donor in return. Among state societies, transfers are required payments that could take form through the collection of taxes, social services, pensions, housing, and healthcare.To better understand the concept of transfers, let us use the current Philippine economic setting as an example. In every economy in the world, importance is placed upon the Circular

Transfers and the Government

The government plays a crucial role in ensuring that transfer payments are collected successfully from participating citizens and institutions. In the government’s case, public goods are provided to people through various programs and activities that benefit its citizens.Among the different allocations of transfer payments, governments usually give priority to retirement and disability benefits, medical benefits, unemployment insurance, and education and training.

Redistribution

It occurs when individuals’ goods or services are pooled together by a central authority to be used at a later time. The central authority may refer to a regional collection point, a storehouse, or the national capital. Note that the main difference between redistribution and reciprocity is that the latter refers to an exchange where goods are passed back and forth from one group to another.

Redistribution, on the other hand, focuses on the collection of goods from individuals in a community to be kept by a central authority. These goods are collected to be used in the future by the same group.Products often move along the hierarchy, where one official transfers the goods into the care of another until they reach storage. While in storage, it is possible for members of the central authority to consume some of the goods that are kept for the future. However, because theprimary aim of redistribution is to allocate such goods back to the people, the central authority should do so. Doing such requires a reversal of processes—from the storage area to the central authority, and ultimately back to the common people.

A good example showing redistribution is the lifestyle of the Cherokees in Tennessee. Cherokees typically harvested corn, squash, and beans, but they also fished and hunted on the side. Every Cherokee family had an area of land to harvest, and they were required by their chief to give a portion of their annual harvests. These were pooled together at the central plaza  where redistributive feasts and council meetings also take place. The products pooled together by the chief are reserved for the needy and for travelers. Commoners could also acquire some of the products with permission from the chief, while recognizing that the chief still owned such goods. At times, the chief holds redistributive feasts where he distributes the accumulated goods to his people.

Understanding Market Transactions

Over a long period, many societies have evolved and have adopted a capitalist economy where the market principle dominates. This principle implies that the market is responsible for the sale and distribution of goods and services. A prominent concept in discussing market transactions is market exchange which refers to the organized process of sale and distribution at money price. This would imply that for all forms of transactions within a market, money is heavily utilized. Note, however, that a market, in this sense, does not just refer to a physical structure (such as a public market) where local goods are sold to consumers.

A market, in economic terms, refers to a bigger setting where buyers or sellers simultaneously trade or exchange goods or services. Markets could imply a global setting where states engage in market transactions to exchange goods or services.

In a market exchange, at least two people should be involved: one who has a product and another who has the money. Using a system of barters and bargaining, the two individuals agree upon a specific price for a specific quantity of the product. To further understand this concept, let us use your personal experience as an example. Dining out at restaurants by yourself or with your family is an example of market exchange. When you eat out, you allot a specific amount of money to buy food. The same amount of money you have allotted could buy specific quantities of products from the menu. When you pay for your food at the cashier, you are already engaging in a market transaction because you gave up your money in exchange for goods or services, which in this case, is food. Thus, all forms of market exchange would require the following: a medium of exchange, a rateat which products are exchanged for money, and parties who are involved in the exchange(i.e., buyers or sellers).

Elements of Market Transactions

In understanding market transactions, it is important to also familiarize yourself with the elements that make up market exchanges. Note that these elements are also important in balancing the economy.

Element Description

• Money-It consists of objects that serve as means of exchange for goods and services.
• Prices-It is the amount required or agreed upon by the exchanging parties. It is the amount of money usedin exchange for a certain product.
• Supply-It refers to the quantity of goods or services that are available to sell at a given price and period of time.
• Demand-It refers to the quantity of goods or services that consumers are willing to purchase at a given price and time period.

The Interaction of States and Markets

Providing an in-depth concept of the state requires a look at markets and vice versa. States need to foster economic growth to provide a good standard of living to its citizens. At the same time, markets exist because of the economic activities done by the state. As such, we could easily conclude that markets and states are dependent on each other. This interaction between states and markets opens up the field of international political economy. This phenomenon also drives changes to the holistic development of a nation. One prominent example of the effects of the interactions between states and markets is the case of China where developments on both their market and state needs were emphasized and utilized in their reform programs.

As an effect, the country developed societal and economic growth over the past two decades. The market-based and state-based reforms and developments that China implemented rested highly upon the transformation of people’s communes, state-owned enterprises, decentralization, price reform, and capital market development.

Reviewing the steps that China did to achieve economic and societal growth and progress, we could easily conclude that the best way to uplift the economy and the state itself is for the two entities to complement each other in their respective political and economic processes. For instance, to ensure the successful market transactions, states need to be positive catalysts in ensuring an environment that is highly beneficial for market activities.

Conflicts between Market and State Functions

While some societies can move past the different focus of markets and states, there are still ongoing debates about their theoretical and practical components. For instance, the abrupt rise of globalization has led academicians to suggest the end of the dominance of states in exchange for the emergence of global markets.A widely-supported belief on states and markets is their inability to complement each other in macro-functions. According to supporters of the contractualist notion and liberal views, states are unnatural entities occurring within societies because they are primarily built by strict delegations of power by citizens.

In addition, liberal notions emphasize that because states are basically built by citizens, the only power it has over society is to enforce its law and ensure that group members are receiving equal rights. Thus, this perspective argues for a minimal role of states and its inability to handle, control, and utilize markets. Despite ongoing debate over the relationship markets and states, some contemporary scholars suggested and provided empirical proof that the two entities are indeed linked toeach other and are equally important to societal development.

Types of State According to Market Roles

As earlier mentioned, according to scholars, relationships between the state and market vary in terms of degree of interdependence. Some views argue for less state intervention in market activities, while other perspectives see the necessity of state actions in managing the market.

In these varying perspectives, the state plays different roles in relation to the market. There are at least three types of states depending on their role or relationship to the market, namely: the laissez-faire state, the interventionist or developmental state, and the welfare state.

Laissez-Faire State

    Laissez-faire is derived from French words that mean “to leave alone.” According to the principle of laissez-faire, the economy functions best when the government does not intervene through regulations, subsidies, privileges, and other types of intervention. The laissez-faire state, therefore, completely does not have any role in managing the market.

Interventionist or Developmental State

The developmental or interventionist state is a state that intervenes in the market and sets the direction and pace of economic development. To bring about economic development, developmental states implement policies, such as subsidies, protection of tariffs and local industries, and prioritization of some industries over others. In these types of states, the state and the market are closely intertwined, and their relationship is managed by a special bureau or department that coordinates the developmental efforts of the state on the economy.

Welfare State

The welfare state is one that plays an important role in the achievement and protection of the economic and social well-being of its citizens. In contrast to the developmental state, the welfare state’s involvement is aimed at achieving a good quality of life for the citizens, rather than merely driving economic development.

Examples of programs of the welfare state are the provision of health services, low-cost housing, and basic education. Within the welfare state, the government itself is not the only actor tasked with providing welfare. Businesses and organizations may also contribute to providing welfare services. Various forms of state-market relationships can bring about different effects on the lives of the citizens in a country. Some states are a combination of these types.

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MODULE 2: POLITICAL AND LEADERSHIP STRUCTURES

POLITICAL ORGANIZATION

•     A political organisation or political organization is any organization that involves itself in the political process, including political parties, non-governmental organizations, advocacy groups and special interest groups.
  

TYPES OF POLITICAL ORGANIZATIONS

Acephalous Societies

• Also known as stateless societies.
• There is no central authority, administrative power, and judicial institution.
• Small scale groups that create decisions through consensus or voting systems.
• Culturally homogenous
• Primarily agriculturally-dependent
• Marriage practices are polygamous.
• Religious beliefs are animistic
• An example of a stateless society is the Nuer group from South Sudan.

Cephalous Societies

• Also known as state societies.
• A central governmental institution, authority, and judicial power over its people.
• Wealth, status, and privilege correspond to authority and power
• Borders or territories are strictly guarded.
• Culturally heterogenous
• Leaders of state societies need to foster good relationships with leaders from other state societies.
• An example of a state society is the Philippines.

Classification of Societies

• Bands

  -Smallest and most primitive

  – Live autonomously and are comprised of small kin .

  – Hunting and gathering is their typical way of life.

  – Social order is achieved through informal public opinion in the forms of gossip and avoidance.

• Tribes

• – Do not not have a formal and organized political structure.- Usually bigger than bands and are primarily food producers.- Give great value on agriculture and husbandry than hunting and gathering. – Social order is maintained through a kinship and family system led by a community head

• Chiefdoms

• – More complex than tribes and bands.
• – Already have a form of social and political structure characterized by a community leader.
• – Dependent upon the judgment of chief.
• – Economic activities among chiefdoms are more advanced and successful compared to that of tribes and bands.

• States

• – The most politically organized and structurally-developed among the classifications of societies.
• – Self governing societies.
• – Bureaucracy is heavily practiced by states.
• – Its people and territories are protected by its own military.

 

Authority and Legitimacy

Authority – refer to an individual’s expertise in aparticular topic of interest.

– in the political sense therefore, means that a certain political entity has the right to use and exercise its power over a specific group or society.

Classification of Authority Definition

• Traditional Authority-A status system or hierarchy is allocated for each member of the group.This classification could be associated with hereditary power where status and power are passed on through genetics.
• Charismatic Authority
• This classification is more dependent on personality than status.It is not limited by rules but is more controlled by the authority figure’s intentions. It can inspire devotion and total control of power
• Legal – Rational Authority
•  This is found in more industrialized, modern societies where power rests upon a particular office and not upon a specific person.Authority and power are exercised based on laws. As such, the law and the judiciary are seen as the highest forms of power in society.
• Legitimacy
• – belief that a certain entity has a right to rule or to be in authority.- this would imply that power and authority is seen as something that is rightful and acceptable to be upheld by the governing body.
•  According to Beetham, for a political organization or entity to be considered legitimate, it must meet three criteria:
•  Power must be exercised according to rules.
•  Rules must be justified both by the political government and the society.
•  The governed should consent and agree with the power and authority of the political

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MODULE 1: CULTURAL,SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS

• Social institution- Social Institutions Examples. A social institution consists of a group of people who have come together for a common purpose.
• Family- the basic unit in society traditionally consisting of two parents rearing their children.
• Family Orientation- often compared to family of procreation. Family of procreation refers to the family you create through marriage and by having or adopting children.
• Family of procreation- often compared to family of orientation, which is the family that we are born into.

• Practices in tracing family lineage

• Unillineal system- asystem of determining descent groups in which one belongs to one’s father’s or mother’s line, whereby traced either exclusively through male ancestors (patriline), female (matriline).
• Patrillineal– relating to or based on relationship to the father or descent through the male line.
• Matrillineal– refers to familial relationships that can be traced through a female.
• To follow the matrilinealline in your family, start with your mom.
• Bilateral-comes from Latin: bimeans “two” and lateralis means “belonging to the side.” Debates about issues can be described as bilateral — as long as people on both sides get to speak. However, bilateral can describe anything with two sides, like some of the organs in the body: the brain, heart and lungs all have two distinct sides.

 

• Marriage

  Some cultures, marriage is arranged by families, and in others people choose their own husbands or wives if they decide to marry. There are some places where marriage is limited to unions between a man and a woman, while more and more states and countries recognize marriage between same-sex couples too.

•          Types of Marriage

• Societies rules og marriage- For the societies that practice marriage there are rules about whom one can marry and cannot marry (note: not all groups marry; traditionally the Na in Southwest China do not marry). All societies have some form of an incest taboo that forbids sexual relationships with certain people. This is variable from culture to culture. Several explanations have been preferred to explain the origins of incest taboos. One cites biological reasons. Non-human primates seem to have an instinctual aversion to having sex with near relatives, so perhaps the same happens for humans. Another biological reason is that the incest taboo was established to maintain biological diversity. This suggests that people understood the consequences of breeding with relatives.
• Endogamy- marriage within one’s own tribe or group as required by custom or law.
• Exogamy- marriage to a person belonging to a tribe or group other than your own as required by custom or law.
• Polygany– having more than one wife at a time.
• Polyandry- having more than one  relationship.husband at a time.
• Monogamy-is when you are married to, or in a sexual relationship with, one person at a time. Humans are one of the few species that practice monogamy. Well, sometimes.
• You may have heard of something called polygamy, which is having more than one spouse at a time. The difference between monogamy and its antonym, polygamy, lies in the prefixes. In Greek, poly means “multiple,” while mono means just the opposite: “single.” Therefore, if you are committed to one romantic partner at a time, you are in a monogamous
• Sharia Law- the code of law derived from the Koran and from the teachings and example of Mohammed.

•  TYPES OF RESIDENCE

• Patriolocal residence-is structured by a rule that a man remains in his father’s house after reaching maturity and brings his wife to live with his family after marriage. Daughters, conversely, move out of their natal household when they marry.
• Matrilocal residence-  is instituted by a rule that a woman remains in her mother’s household after reaching maturity and brings her husband to live with her family after marriage. Sons, conversely, move out of their natal household after marriage to join their wife’s household. It can take on a number of forms, some, but not all of which occur within matrilineal societies. Non-standard cases include socieites with bride service, in which a man moves in with his wife’s family but sets up his own household after his obligations are met.
• Ambilocal residence- also called bilocal residence is the societal postmarital residence in which couples, upon marriage, choose to live with or near either spouse’s parents.
• Neolocal residence- type of post-marital residence in which a newly married couple resides separately from both the husband’s natal household and the wife’s natal household.
• Fictive kinship- a term used by anthropologists and ethnographers to describe forms of kinship or social ties that are based on neither consanguineal nor affinal ties, in contrast to true kinship ties
• Compradazgo– the reciprocal relationship or the social institution of such relationship existing between a godparent or godparents and the godchild and its parents in the Spanish-speaking world (as in South America)

• Types of family in the contemporay world

• Transitional family- is a residential service for young women and children. The goal is to assist these young women in developing the educational, vocational and social skills necessary for a successful transition to self sufficiency.
• Single parent- parent is a parent who parents alone. It means there is an absence of the other parent as opposed to a co-parent, meaning that the parent is not the only parent regardless of whether or not they are a couple.
• Reconstituted- The simple definition of a blended family, also called a step family, reconstituted family, or a complex family, is a family unit where one or both parents have children from a previous relationship, but they have combined to form a new family. The parents may or may not then have children with each other.

• Legal separation

      A legal process by which a married couple may formalize a de facto separation while remaining legally married. A legal separation is granted in the form of a court order.

• Annulment

  -legal procedure within secular and religious legal systems for declaring a marriage null and void.

• Divorce

  known as dissolution of marriage, is the termination of a marriage or marital union, the canceling or reorganizing of the legal duties and responsibilities of marriage, thus dissolving .

• Politics among family members

• Patriachal– a social system in which males hold primary power and predominate in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property.
• Matriachal– a social system in which females hold the primary power positions in roles of political leadership, moral authority, social privilege and control of property at the specific exclusion of males – at least to a large degree.
• Egalitarian-relating to or believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights and opportunities.

• Politics among families in society

• Political Dynasty-  

  is a family in which several members are involved in politics, particularly electoral politics. Members may be related by blood or marriage; often several generations or multiple siblings may be involved.

• Incest- sexual activity between family members or close relatives. This typically includes sexual activity between people in a consanguineous relationship (blood relations), and sometimes those related by affinity, stepfamily, those related by adoption or marriage, or members of the same clan or lineage.

Continue reading “UCSP MODULE 1: CULTURAL,SOCIAL AND POLITICAL INSTITUTIONS” →

ARALIN 5:MGA SITWASYONG PANGWIKA

ARALIN 4: TUNGKULIN NG WIKA

  Nagtataglay din ng tungkulin ang wika na tumutulong sa mga gumagamit nito sa pagbubuo ng mga nais nilang gawin o naisin.Narito ang mga sumusunod:

INSTRUMENTAL-ngagawa ng wika na magsilbing instrumento sa mga tao upang maisagawa o maisakatuparan ang anumang naisin. 

REGULATORI-nagagawa ng wika na kontrolin ang mga pangyayari sa kanyang paligid. 

REPRESENTASYONAL-ginagamit upng makipagkomyunikeyt, mkapagbahagi ng mga pangyayari, makapagpahayag ng detalye.Gayundin makapagpadala at makatangagap ng mensahe sa iba. 

INTERAKSYONAL-ipinapaliwanag dito na nagagawa ng wika na mapanatili at mapatatag ang relasyon ng tao sa kanyang kapwa. 

PERSONAL-nagagamit din ng wika upang maipahayag ang personalidad ng isang indibidwal ayon sa sarili niyang kaparaanan. 

HEURISTIC-tumutulong upang makapagtamo ang tao ng iba’t ibang kaalaman. 

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